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Electrophysiology
And The Acupuncture Systems
Darren Starwynn, OMD
ABSTRACT
There have been extensive efforts in recent decades to correlate the
principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) with Western medical
science. The most promising bridge between these 2 paradigms has been
in the field of bioelectromagnetism (BEM), the study of the subtle electromagnetic
fields that are the underpinning of life processes. Most of the significant
research in this field comes from Europe, and much of it has not been
readily available in the United States. This article is an overview
of research in this field, with a focus on understanding acupuncture
needling, meridians, life-force, and acupoints from the perspective
of BEM.
KEY WORDS
Bioelectromagnetics, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Electromagnetic,
Resonance, Quantum Physics, Potentials, Polarity, Conductivity, Capacitance,
Ion, Microcurrent, Nordenstrom, Semi-conduction, Piezoelectricity, Manaka,
Fascia
INTRODUCTION
During the long history of traditional Chinese acupuncture, the results
of needling acupoints have been described both clinically and theoretically.
The concepts of Qi, Blood, meridians, and acupoints are integral to
the understanding and application of TCM. Since its introduction into
Western culture, there have been many experiments and writings to attempt
to explain these concepts in Western scientific terms. Many early explanations
were shallow and simplistic, for example, that acupuncture is simply
a primitive way of describing stimulation of the nervous system, or
that it is only placebo treatment.
There have been a growing number of insightful researchers who have
penetrated much further into the common truth between TCM and Western
science, and their paths have led into the realms of electromagnetics
and quantum physics.
Bioelectromagnetics (BEM)1 is a term used for the study of the relationships
between electromagnetics and living systems. An account of the history
of research into this field in recent centuries can be found in the
book The Body Electric.2 This article summarizes some of the most valuable
and practical findings to date.
Electromagnetic Fields and Life
In the early 20th century, there was a rush to embrace biochemical explanations
for disease and healing as the modern pharmaceutical industry emerged
with many impressive successes. Medical treatment became largely based
on drug therapies and surgical interventions, and the 19th-century boom
of interest in electromagnetic healing methods was largely lost. In
the midst of this, a few notable scientists published important discoveries
in the field of BEM. Lakhovsky wrote a valuable book in the 1920s in
which he explained many interrelationships between high-frequency electromagnetic
fields, including cosmic radiations and living things.3 In the book's
introduction, he writes:
What is life?
It is the dynamic equilibrium of all cells, the harmony of multiple
radiations which react upon one another. What is disease? It is the
oscillatory disequilibrium of cells, originating from external causes.
Lakhovsky explained
how living things interrelate by receiving and giving off electromagnetic
radiations. The radiatory energies of living cells described by Lakhovsky
make direct energetic communication between life forms possible. The
Russian scientist Pressman summed up 3 effects of such fields: they
allow living things to sense information about the environment; they
faciliate organization and control within the organism; and they are
used for communication between living things.4
Biophotons is the term Popp used to describe the energy communication
medium between life forms, and explained how they regulate many physiological
functions, including growth, maturation, cell differentiation, enzymatic
activity, and the immune system.5 Del Giudice published an article in
which he expounded on a model of resonance and interaction between systems
of particles bonded by electromagnetic fields, in which the particles
move harmoniously through field effects.6
Indeed, such particle communication has been demonstrated in the study
of quantum physics. A basic principle of this science is that all parts
of the universe are connected to, and in communication with, all other
parts. This communication is instantaneous and freely available to those
entities that can perceive it. Quantum theory was first advanced by
Planck at the end of the 19th century, and was further refined by Bohr.
Bohr, who coined the term quantum leap in reference to the ability of
electrons to instantaneously jump to different orbits through absorbing
and dispersing energy, demonstrated that such movement happens at velocities
faster than the speed of light.7 Quantum physics has been described
as a field of study in which modern scientific inquiry and measurements
meet intuitive spiritual principles. Indeed, the concept of a universal
data bank from quantum physics parallels the esoteric concept of the
Akashic Records, which holds timeless records of all thoughts, words,
and events in history. The principle of the interrelatedness of all
waves and particles in the universe correlates with what has been described
as God, Universal Mind, or Spirit.
The ancient Chinese descriptions of Qi and its pathways and accumulations
in the body closely correlate with what is being discovered about subtle
electromagnetic activity in life forms. We can understand that energy
exists in a continuum of power, subtlety, and expression from cosmic
source to the dense physical plane. The human organism is
influenced by many levels of this continuum, from spiritual energies
of unimaginable subtlety to those grossly apparent to our senses, such
as the "evils" of excessive cold, wind, and heat spoken of
by the ancient Chinese. The acupuncture systems are largely based on
electromagnetic energies, which exist somewhere between these levels
according to evidence provided by the researchers quoted herein.
One of the first questions to consider is: What is the source of the
energies the body processes through the acupuncture systems? A basic
truth is that all living organisms are energy-producing systems, even
those that appear parasitic. All organisms are dependent on outside
sources of energy as well, such as from food, air, and the sun. In the
human body, energy is produced on the cellular level by the Krebs or
citric acid cycle, from the lung-heart connection, and the transformation
of nutritive substances by the organs. According to TCM, the 2 organs
most responsible for production of energy are the Lungs and Spleen (Tai
Yin). The Triple Warmer function is the regulator of metabolism of the
upper, middle, and lower areas of the body. German acupuncturists have
correlated the Triple Warmer to the endocrine system, which regulates
metabolism and other life processes through hormonal control.
The energies produced by the body generate an electrical field in and
around the body. This field is analogous to the aura described by clairvoyants,
or the field of Qi as described by Qi Gong practitioners. According
to such practitioners, disturbances or blocks in the body's energy production
and flow form dark or collapsed areas in the body's field. Using potentiometric
measurements of the body's electrical potentials, Schuldt determined
that the meridian system follows lines of condensation of the field
force created by the body.8 Becker stated that this field is inhomogenous
and is determined by the underlying structures of the body, including
tissue, fascia, muscles, bone, skin, and proximity to organs. The field
is also influenced by the relationship of these structures in terms
of resistance, distance, interference, capacitance, polarity, and resonance.
Acupuncture acts, in part, by interconnecting charges between these
lines of force in the body.9
According to Schuldt, some of the most severe physical symptoms such
as acute pain, spasm, tetany, and neuropathies are caused by distortions
in the body's field due to damaged viscera. He states that this is more
significant in causing such symptoms than nerve injury and damage. His
research shows that phantom limb pain, an example of
pain due to field distortion, could be resolved through healing of the
internal organs.
Electrical Parameters of the Human Body
Much of the early research into the electrical nature of acupuncture
points dealt with the differences in skin resistance between acupoints
and surrounding tissues. In the early 1950s, Nakatani found that some
points on the body were more conductive than others when a 12-V current
was applied to the skin. He called these low-resistance spots "good
electro-permeable points," or the Japanese term, ryodoraku. Since
then, many researchers have developed apparatuses to measure the electrical
conductivity of acupuncture points in relation to non-points.10 Krippner
demonstrated that the resistance of acupoints ranged from 100-200 kV,
while non-points had much higher resistances up to
1 MV. Niboyet used more sophisticated measurement devices to show that
acupoints were about 50% more conductive than surrounding points, and
that when electrodes were placed on points on the same meridian, electric
currents passed more preferentially than if the electrodes were placed
on different meridians.
Capacitance is the ability of a substance to store and gradually release
electrical charge. Electronic components, i.e., capacitors, are used
in most electronic equipment for this purpose. According to research
by Dumitrescu,11 acupoints store charge to a greater degree than surrounding
tissues and have lower resistance. He found that acupoints
have capacitance readings of 0.02 - 0.5 mF (microfarads) while non-points
were measured at less than 0.01 mF.
Polarity is another vital principle in the energetic workings of the
human body and acupuncture treatment. Electrical potentials, which reveal
polarity, were measured in the human body by Ionescu-Tirgoviste and
Pruna using electroacupuncturogram (EAG) equipment.12 In their studies,
they bilaterally connected distal acupoints GB 41 and TW 3 to an EAG
device, which simultaneously measured the point's electrical potentials
in mV in comparison to abdominal point Ren 7, which was used as the
ground. The EAG device itself did not significantly stimulate the points.
These measurements were taken during various conditions, including acupuncture
needle insertion, manipulation, and thermal and laser stimulation of
points. The researchers found that, when the potential differences between
the points was high, the patients reported energetic sensations ranging
from gentle tingling to intense electrical sensations as a result of
the connections. When there was little potential differences, patients
felt little or nothing. In this study, the researchers observed that
the distal acupoints could be positive or negative in relation to ground.
They concluded that meridians exist as canals in the interstitial spaces
between the structures of the body along which endogenous electrical
charges propagate. Blockages in the normal flow of these currents lead
to high concentrations of positive or negative electrical charges that
may cause pain and other symptoms of disease.
This appears to indicate that imbalances of Yin and Yang (build-up of
positive or negative ionic activity, respectively), when discharged
through acupuncture stimulation, lead to the characteristic propagated
sensations through the meridians and the "Te Chi" phenomenon.
Te Chi is the sensation of tingling, soreness, heaviness, or throbbing
that is the result of skillful needle insertion and manipulation in
acupoints. It is different than the pain of hitting nerves, which is
much more unpleasant. The greater the potential differences, the greater
the Te Chi sensations. The meridians represent the charted "paths
of least resistance" to the flow of endogenous ionic currents.
Ionescu-Tirgoviste et al offered the following chart, "Functional
Particularities of the Skin Areas Used in Acupuncture:"12
Qualities of Superficial Skin Acu-Points
1. High electric potentials (up to 300 mV)
2. High electric capacitance values (0.1-1 mF)
3. Low electrical resistance
4. Increased skin respiration
5. High local temperature
6. Spontaneous visible light emission from the Jing and Yuan points
7. Sound signals at the acupuncture points (2-15 Hz, amplitude 0.5-1
mV, sharp or sine wave)
Qualities of Deep Skin Acu-Points
1. Low deep perception threshold to an electric stimulus
2. Capacitance (storage of electric charges)
3. Electro-resonance with other acupoints
4. High conductivity of isotopic tracers
From the preceding research, it can be deduced that acupuncture is probably
most effective when the symptoms being treated are associated with buildup
of significant ionic imbalances that can be discharged through point
stimulation.
Microcurrents and the Meridian System
In my work with microcurrent electroacupuncture, I have made measurements
of skin resistance before and after brief 6-second bursts of microcurrent
stimulation. I have consistently observed that increases of skin electrical
conductivity after such stimulation are far greater in patients with
actual pathologies than in healthy people. The above study appears to
corroborate this. Patients with pain and dysfunction have more of a
build-up of electrical activity due to impaired circulation. A microcurrent
device, in reading out changes in skin resistance, can clearly show
this change.
In explanation, the old "beaver dam" analogy is useful: a
free-flowing stream has an overall even energy, a device measuring its
flow would not show many large fluctuations. Yet if the beavers build
a dam upstream from the measuring device, the flow rate will be greatly
lessened. If the dam were suddenly knocked away, the device would then
detect a major rush of increased water, which would then gradually settle
back to a more or less steady flow. This is what we see when taking
skin resistance measurements. When treating and measuring areas on the
extremities in patients with pain, with positive electrode proximal
and negative electrode distal, it is common to see resistance changes
between the points as much as 60% after only 6 seconds of stimulation.
I have observed that such large increases in conductivity usually correlate
with rapid symptomatic relief of pain and restricted range of motion.
When, on the other hand, the conductivity readings do not change after
stimulation, symptomatic results have often been less precise. This
also supports the principle that large releases of cumulative ionic
imbalances in the electrical systems of the body are associated with
good clinical results.
An important medical researcher of microcurrents and acupuncture is
Nordenstrom. He is best known for his development of advanced catheters
used in surgery; he has also made contributions in energy medicine for
cancer treatment. He postulated the meridian systems as a vascular-interstitial
closed circuit.13 According to Nordenstrom, this system allows for transfer
of positive or negative ionic charges over long distances in the body
through the blood vessels and interstitial spaces. The system is powered
by imbalances of positive and negative currents created by energy production
of the organs, as well as "currents of injury" released by
tissue damage and trauma. The most frequently used electrical channels
form the meridians mapped out by TCM. Only direct current flows in tissues;
high-frequency alternating currents, used in many clinical milliamp
stimulators, are not effective for balancing the meridians systems.
Therefore, microcurrents, which are gen-
erally used as a form of modulated direct current, are most useful for
this purpose. High-frequency alternating currents, as used in classic
interferential and other modalities, may be valuable for grosser counter-irritation
effects for acute pain and possibly at high doses to destroy unhealthy
tissues.
Dr Yoshio Manaka's ion-pumping cords also work on the principle of equalization
of charge imbalance in the body. By using the master points of the extraordinary
vessels and principal meridians for ion pumping, this balancing is directed
to the deepest energy layers of the body.14
Nordenstrom's work with terminal cancer patients has been impressive.
Cancer cells are more sensitive to electrical energy than healthy ones,
and application of externally applied currents strongly influence those
cells. He demonstrated that direct microcurrent stimulation of tumors
with implanted needle electrodes significantly blocked cancer pain for
long periods, and in many cases caused the tumor to regress or disappear.
The positive pole of the stimulator was placed in the tumor and the
negative at some distance away. Nordenstrom's explanation for this phenomenon
was that perhaps the tumor would become dehydrated through electro-osmosis,
which then blocked production of pain-causing substances in the tumor,
such as histamine, substance-P, and bradykinin. Research in the United
States with high-volt pulsed galvanic stimulators has also shown that
the negative pole tends to be sclerolytic, or tissue softening, and
the positive pole tissue tends to be hardening, probably associated
with dehydration. Nordenstom's landmark work with cancer has not been
carried forward in the United States.
Electrical Effects of Acupuncture Needling
Nordenstrom also studied the electrical effects of acupuncture needle
stimulation. He made the following observations: the potential difference
between the subcutis of the patient and the acupuncturist's fingers
form a capacitive flow of current, eventually equalizing the charges.
The charge may flow either way, depending on the relative
strength of the acupuncturist's and the patient's personal field. This
confirms the importance of the practice of Qi Gong (and healthy living)
by acupuncturists (to keep their personal field stronger than that of
the patients). If a needle with a plastic handle is used, which insulates
it from direct contact with the acupuncturist's charge, the needle will
still equalize the charges between the surface and deeper layers of
the patient's tissues with which it is in contact. Manipulation of the
needle can also influence the flow of charge, depending on whether it
is in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction, or whether lifting
or thrusting is done more forcefully. Any time currents flow between
metal and an electrolyte (body fluids), electrolysis creates a build-up
of deposits that eventually act as an insulator. Periodic manipulation
and twirling of the needles can mechanically remove this coating, facilitating
good continued electrical contact.
In another study by Ionescu-Tirgoviste,15 an EAG device was connected
to acupuncture needles placed in the same points as indicated in the
previously quoted study. The needles were manipulated in the following
classic methods: clockwise twirling, counterclockwise twirling, back-and-forth
twirling, and lifting and thrusting (up and down) movement. The investigators
found that the needles on the distal acupoints had a negative potential
in comparison with the abdominal needle in all cases, but the degree
of potential varied between -25 to -350 mV according to the needling
technique and the health
of the patients. Healthy patients registered distal potentials between
-150 to -250 mV, while those with diseases had potentials above or below
these levels. Needle manipulation changed the potentials, with counterclockwise
twirling/lifting/ thrusting increasing the potentials the most. The
healthy patients recovered their basal readings soon after manipulation,
while unhealthy ones recovered more slowly or not at all, indicating
some kind of energetic blockade. According to TCM theory, this is probably
associated with impaired Liver function because the Liver controls the
spreading and circulation of Qi.
Perhaps the most detailed research into the electrical qualities of
acupuncture needling has been done by Mussat, who performed many experiments
to measure the precise electrical activity generated by acupuncture
needles of various metallic combinations.9 His work conclusively demonstrated
that acupuncture needling releases electrical energy into the body and
is the original microcurrent therapy. Placing a metal needle into contact
with body fluids creates a simple battery Generation of energy by such
a battery is greatly increased by use of bimetallic needles, such as
those with handles made of a different metal than the shaft. Bimetallic
combinations that generate electrical energy when in contact with each
other are known as thermocouples. Applying heat to the needle handles
can greatly increase energy generation of the thermocouple.
In Mussat's early experiments, he found that acupuncture needles made
of tungsten created the most powerful polarization and therapeutic effects
when inserted into the body. Tungsten is used to make filaments in light
bulbs because of its efficiency at converting electrical to light energy.
Because these needles tended to lose their proper tip-
shaping rapidly due to brittleness, and caused excessive pain, he searched
for alternatives. He experimented with needles made of the following
metal combinations: tungsten-silver, special stainless steel-copper,
special stainless steel-cupron (nickel-copper alloy), stainless steel-brass,
stainless steel-brass with gold plating, and Chinese-made needles of
stainless steel and silver.
Mussat used a microammeter, a device that measures electrical activity,
to measure the charge generated between the handle and tip of the needles.
He found that the combinations creating the greatest discharge into
the acupuncture points were tungsten-silver, copper-stainless steel,
and stainless steel-cupron with gold plating on the handles. He discovered
stainless steel-cupron with gold plating on the handles to be the most
efficient. Measurements of current generated by different kinds of needles
ranged from 30-60 nanoamps (billionths of amps), with readings as high
as 20 mA when the needles were heated with a hot flame.
Steel needles with metal handles made of metals such as copper, brass,
or gold have a positive polarization of the tip in relation to the handle,
i.e., the handle acts as the cathode and the tip, the anode. When the
needle handle is heated to a temperature higher than the body region,
it is inserted into the polarity reverses.
Mussat also measured the capacitance of bimetallic needles and found
that bimetallic needles, again acting as mini-batteries, gradually discharge
over time when in contact with a conductive medium (such as the human
body).
Mussat also measured electrical activity along meridians. In 1 experiment,
he placed 2 needles along the trajectory of a single meridian and applied
a few minutes of pulsed electrical stimulation of about 1 V to the needles,
with the 2 electrodes of the power source on the 2 needles. After stopping
the stimulation, he measured the charge between the needles and found
it to be as high as 24-30 mA. Yet if he moved either needle slightly
off the meridian pathway, the readings were much lower. This appears
to indicate that the meridians also store electrical charges, perhaps
due to the electrical qualities of fascial connective tissue, which
some Japanese researchers have identified as the physical substrate
of the meridian system.
Semi-Conduction and Piezo-Electricity
Semi-conduction and piezo-electricity are 2 electrical qualities of
crystalline substances that occur prolifically in the human body. Both
are highly relevant to understanding the electrical qualities of the
meridian system. There are 3 kinds of current conduction known to modern
science: metallic conduction, ionic conduction, and semi-conduction.
Metallic conduction only occurs in metal wires; ionic conduction occurs
through cell membranes, but is incapable of traversing more than minute
distances in the body; and semi-conduction is the only known mode of
conduction outside of metal wires capable of transmitting very small
currents over long distances. Semi-conduction is possible only in substances
with very orderly molecular structures such as crystals. Szent-Gyorgyi
was the first to point out that the molecular structures of the human
body are organized enough to support semi-conduction through passing
information along chains of protein molecules.2
Becker constructed many experiments to test this principle, and he concluded
that energy transmission and communication of the meridian system are
based on semi-conduction along the perineural glial cells that support
the nervous system. These allow subtle currents to be transported over
long distances without losing charge. He demonstrated that these semi-conducted
currents were completely different than electrical activity of the nerves
themselves. Nerves transmit high-frequency electrical action potentials,
while glial cells transmit slower, direct currents of much smaller amplitude.
He postulated that such
direct currents represented the more primitive aspect of our electrophysiology,
which supports healing and regeneration, and acupuncture points were,
in effect, weigh stations that boosted the charge along the pathways.2
Creatures with a greater preponderance of these DC systems than humans,
such as lizards and salamanders, possess much
greater powers of regeneration and can regrow amputated limbs and organs.
Becker suggested and demonstrated in preliminary ways that use of correctly
applied subtle direct currents may someday allow humans to do similar
feats.
The body's semi-conduction system as explained by Becker correlates
well with the X-signal system theorized by Manaka.14 According to Manaka,
this system consists of immeasurably small charges in and around the
body that ultimately regulate all life processes. While the X-signals
cannot be measured with currently available tools, their effects can
be clearly observed through changes in pressure pain on acupoints, pulse
diagnosis, and kinesiology (muscle testing). The X-signal system is
exquisitely sensitive to polarity agents such as magnets, ion-pumping
cords, or polarized electrical probes.
The other inherent electrical quality of the body is piezo-electricity.
This is the tendency of a crystalline structure, when deformed or struck,
to release an electrical charge. The forces of movement and gravity
on the human and animal bodies are constantly triggering such
charges. Becker measured such activity in bone and showed that bone
regeneration is turned on by endogenous charges generated by piezo-electricity.
This phenomenon is not limited to bones. Matsumoto and Birch offer explanations
and many research citations indicating that connective tissues of many
kinds possess piezoelectric properties and literally in- terconnect
every part of the body with every other part.16 Fascia can be compared
with a complex, stretchy network that is constantly releasing and circulating
subtle charges. Piezoelectric activity has been demonstrated in many
kinds of connective tissues and blood vessels.16
These insights reveal that subtle electrical charges are being generated
through piezoelectricity by all movement and the effects of gravity,
and that these charges are semi-conducted over long distances in the
body. This gives support to the healing and regenerative effects of
Hatha yoga, deep tissue massage, Rolfing, and exercise, all of which
help generate and circulate subtle energy throughout the body through
stimulating piezoelectric activity, and this is clearly associated with
health and well-being.
CONCLUSION
The human body generates electrical energy through organic action, cellular
respiration, currents of injury, and piezoelectrical activity. These
subtle currents form fields of force, the condensations of which form
the charted meridian system. Researchers have placed the sub- strate
of the meridians variously in the glial cells, fascial network, interstitial
spaces, and blood vessels. Subtle electrical charges can migrate long
distances in the body through semi-conduction, which passes tiny electrical
charges through orderly molecular matrices. Variations in energy generation
and currents of injury tend to form imbalances in ionic positive and
negative charges in the body, which are associated with pain and disease.
The therapeutic effects of acupuncture come from its ability to locally
or distally discharge these potential differences, or otherwise help
bring about optimal charge conditions of the body. Acupuncture points
have greater electrical conductivity than surrounding tissues. Varieties
of metals used together in the manufacture of acupuncture needles create
thermocouple effects for stronger stimulation of acupoints. The body's
energy systems are polarized, with the trunk and head tending to be
more electropositive and the extremities electronegative. Electrostimulation
that follows these natural polarities, and significantly increases conductivity
between the electrodes, will tend to be more clinically effective. Non-needle
microcurrent stimulation, especially when polarized to follow the body's
natural polarization, can be a highly effective meridian-balancing method.
REFERENCES
1. Milburn M. Biomagnetics: implications for Oriental medicine and acupuncture.
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2. Selden G, Becker R. The Body Electric. New York, NY: William Morrow
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3. Lakhovsky G. The Secret of Life. [First published 1935]. Reprinted:
Newport Beach, Calif: The Noontide Press; 1992.
4. Presman AS. Electromagnetic Fields and Life. New York, NY: Plenum
Press; 1970.
5. Popp FA, Becker B. Electromagnetic Bioinformation. 2nd ed. Vienna,
Austria: Urban & Schwarzenberg; 1988.
6. Del Giudice E. Coherence in condensed and living matter. Pioneer
Perspectives. 1993;3(2).
7. Royal FF. Understanding homeopathy, acupuncture and electrodiagnosis:
clinical applications of quantum mechanics. Am J Acupuncture. 1990;18.
8. Schuldt H. From: paper presented at the Third International Congress
of Acupuncture in Berlin; 1976.
9. Mussat M. Acupuncture Networks, Vol. II. Serejski E, trans. 1997.
Available at http://www.webacu.com. Accessibility verified July 22,
2001.
10. Zhu Z-X. Research advances in the electrical specificity of meridians
and acupuncture points. Am J Acupuncture. 1981;9.
11. Dumitrescu IF. Contribution to the Electro-Physiology of the Active
Points, IntÃl Acupuncture conference, Bucharest, Romania, 1977,
as quoted in article Research advances in the electrical specificity
of meridians and acupuncture points. Am J Acupuncture. 1981;9.
12. Ionescu-Tirgoviste, Pruna. The acu-point potential, electroreception
and bio-electrical homeostasis of the human body. Am J Acupuncture.
1990;18.
13. Nordenstrom B. An electrophysiological view of acupuncture: role
of capacitive and closed circuit currents and their clinical effects
in the treatment of cancer and chronic pain. Am J Acupuncture. 1989;17.
14. Manaka Y, Itaya K, Birch S. Chasing the Dragon's Tail. Brookline,
Mass: Paradigm Publications; 1994.
15. Ionescu-Tirgoviste. Measurement of acupuncture injury potential
by acupunctometry. Am J Acupuncture. 1987;15.
16. Matsumoto K, Birch S. Hara Diagnosis, Reflections on the Sea. Brookline,
Mass: Paradigm Publications; 1989.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Darren Starwynn, OMD, LAc practices in Phoenix, Arizona, and lectures
extensively on the subject of electroacupuncture and electrotherapy.
He is an inventor and developer of electrotherapeutic tools.
Darren Starwynn, OMD, Dipl Ac (NCCA)
3810 East Desert Cove Avenue
Phoenix, AZ 85028
Phone: 602-494-5626
Fax: 602-953-3341
E-mail: darren@neta.com
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